Nanowire-Based Membrane Electrode Assemblies for Fuel Cells

ABSTRACT

The present invention discloses nanowires for use in a fuel cell comprising a metal catalyst deposited on a surface of the nanowires. A membrane electrode assembly for a fuel cell is disclosed which generally comprises a proton exchange membrane, an anode electrode, and a cathode electrode, wherein at least one or more of the anode electrode and cathode electrode comprise an interconnected network of the catalyst supported nanowires. Methods are also disclosed for preparing a membrane electrode assembly and fuel cell based upon an interconnected network of nanowires.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This non-provisional application is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/149,527, filed May 31, 2011, which is acontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/234,104, filed Sep.19, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,977,007, which is a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 11/642,241, filed Dec. 20, 2006, now U.S.Pat. No. 7,977,013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 11/295,133, filed Dec. 6, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,179,561,which claims priority to U.S. provisional Patent Application No.60/738,100, filed Nov. 21, 2005, and U.S. provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 60/634,472, filed Dec. 9, 2004, the entire contents of each of whichare incorporated by reference herein.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

Not applicable.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to fuel cells generally, and, more particularly,to nanowire-based electrodes and membrane electrode assemblies for suchfuel cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Fuel cells are devices that convert the chemical energy of fuels, suchas hydrogen and methanol, directly into electrical energy. The basicphysical structure or building block of a fuel cell consists of anelectrolyte layer in contact with a porous anode and cathode on eitherside. A schematic representation of a fuel cell with thereactant/product gases and the ion conduction flow directions throughthe cell is shown in FIG. 1. In a typical fuel cell as shown in FIG. 1,a fuel (e.g., methanol or hydrogen) is fed to an anode catalyst thatconverts the fuel molecules into protons (and carbon dioxide formethanol fuel cells), which pass through the proton exchange membrane tothe cathode side of the cell. At the cathode catalyst, the protons(e.g., hydrogen atoms without an electron) react with the oxygen ions toform water. By connecting a conductive wire from the anode to thecathode side, the electrons stripped from fuel, hydrogen or methanol onthe anode side can travel to the cathode side and combine with oxygen toform oxygen ions, thus producing electricity. Fuel cells operating byelectrochemical oxidation of hydrogen or methanol fuels at the anode andreduction of oxygen at the cathode are attractive power sources becauseof their high conversion efficiencies, low pollution, lightweight, andhigh energy density.

For example, in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), the liquid methanol(CH₃OH) is oxidized in the presence of water at the anode generatingCO₂, hydrogen ions and the electrons that travel through the externalcircuit as the electric output of the fuel cell. The hydrogen ionstravel through the electrolyte and react with oxygen from the air andthe electrons from the external circuit to form water at the anodecompleting the circuit.

Anode Reaction: CH₃OH+H₂O=>CO₂+6H++6e−

Cathode Reaction: 3/2 O₂+6 H++6e−=>3 H₂O

Overall Cell Reaction: CH₃OH+3/2 O₂=>CO₂+2 H₂O

Initially developed in the early 1990s, DMFCs were not embraced becauseof their low efficiency and power density, as well as other problems.Improvements in catalysts and other recent developments have increasedpower density 20-fold and the efficiency may eventually reach 40%. Thesecells have been tested in a temperature range from about 50° C.-120° C.This low operating temperature and no requirement for a fuel reformermake the DMFC an excellent candidate for very small to mid-sizedapplications, such as cellular phones, laptops, cameras and otherconsumer products, up to automobile power plants. One of the drawbacksof the DMFC is that the low-temperature oxidation of methanol tohydrogen ions and carbon dioxide requires a more active catalyst, whichtypically means a larger quantity of expensive platinum (and/orruthenium) catalyst is required.

A DMFC typically requires the use of ruthenium (Ru) as a catalystcomponent because of its high carbon monoxide (CO) tolerance andreactivity. Ru disassociates water to create an oxygenated species thatfacilitates the oxygenation of CO, which is produced from the methanol,to CO₂. Some existing DFMCs use nanometer-sized bimetallic Pt:Ruparticles as the electro-oxidation catalyst because of the high surfacearea to volume ratio of the particles. The Pt/Ru nanoparticles aretypically provided on a carbon support (e.g., carbon black, fullerenesoot, or desulfurized carbon black) to yield a packed particle compositecatalyst structure. Most commonly used techniques for creating the Pt:Rucarbon packed particle composite are the impregnation of a carbonsupport in a solution containing platinum and ruthenium chloridesfollowed by thermal reduction

A multi-phase interface or contact is established among the fuel cellreactants, electrolyte, active Pt:Ru nanoparticles, and carbon supportin the region of the porous electrode. The nature of this interfaceplays a critical role in the electrochemical performance of the fuelcell. It is known that only a portion of catalyst particle sites inpacked particle composites are utilized because other sites are eithernot accessible to the reactants, or not connected to the carbon supportnetwork (electron path) and/or electrolyte (proton path). In fact,current packed particle composites only utilize about 20 to 30% of thecatalyst particles. Thus, most DMFCs which utilize packed particlecomposite structures are highly inefficient.

In addition, connectivity to the anode and/or cathode is currentlylimited in current packed particle composite structures due to poorcontacts between particles and/or tortuous diffusion paths for fuel cellreactants between densely packed particles. Increasing the density ofthe electrolyte or support matrix increases connectivity, but alsodecreases methanol diffusion to the catalytic site. Thus, a delicatebalance must be maintained among the electrode, electrolyte, and gaseousphases in the porous electrode structure in order to maximize theefficiency of fuel cell operation at a reasonable cost. Much of therecent effort in the development of fuel cell technology has beendevoted to reducing the thickness of cell components while refining andimproving the electrode structure and the electrolyte phase, with theaim of obtaining a higher and more stable electrochemical performancewhile lowering cost. In order to develop commercially viable DFMCs, theelectrocatalytic activity of the catalyst must be improved.

The present invention meets these and other needs as well. The presentinvention generally provides a novel nanowire composite membraneelectrode catalyst support assembly that provides a highly porousmaterial with a high surface area, a high structural stability and acontinuum structure. The composite structure may be provided as a highlyinterconnected nanowire supported catalyst structure interpenetratedwith en electrolyte network to maximize catalyst utilization, catalystaccessibility, and electrical and ionic connectivity to thereby improvethe overall efficiency of fuel cells, at lower cost, etc.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a proton exchange membrane fuel cell withnanostructured components, in particular, one or more of the electrodesof the membrane electrode assembly. The nanostructured fuel cell has ahigher catalytic metal utilization rate at the electrodes, higher powerdensity (kW/volume and kW/mass), and lower cost than conventional fuelcells. The nanostructured fuel cells are not only attractive forstationary and mobile applications, but also for use as a compact powersupply for microelectronics such as laptops, cell phones, cameras andother electronic devices.

In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, nanowires(e.g., inorganic nanowires) for use in a membrane electrode assembly ofa fuel cell are disclosed which generally comprise a metal catalystdeposited on a surface of the nanowires. The metal catalyst may bedeposited as a thin film on the surface of the nanowires, or as a layerof catalyst particles, e.g., by functionalizing the surface of thenanowires with standard surface chemistries. The metal catalyst may beselected from the group comprising one or more of platinum (Pt),ruthenium (Ru), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), gold (Au), chromium (Cr),molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), manganese (Mn), technetium (Tc), rhenium(Re), osmium (Os), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir), nickel (Ni), palladium(Pd), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn), aluminum (Al), andcombinations and alloys thereof (such as bimetallic Pt:Runanoparticles). The nanowires may comprise branched structures (e.g.,side nodules) to increase the surface area to volume ratio of the wiresto maximize the catalytic efficiency of the fuel cell. The nanowires maybe made from metallic conducting, semiconducting, carbide, nitride, oroxide materials such as RuO₂, SiC, GaN, TiO₂, SnO₂, WC_(x), MoC_(x),ZrC, WN_(x), MoN_(x) etc. It is preferable that the nanowires be madefrom a material that is resistant to degradation in a weak acid so thatthe nanowires are compatible with the reactants of a variety ofdifferent fuel cells.

The nanowires may be derivatized with at least a first functional groupor chemical binding moiety which binds to metallic catalyst particles,such as a nitric acid group, carboxylic acid group, a hydroxyl group, anamine group, a sulfonic acid group, and the like, or the catalyst may bedeposited as a thin film using other deposition processes such aselectrodeposition, atomic layer deposition, plasma sputtering, etc. Thenanowires may also be derivatized with a functional group whichdifferentially binds to a thin proton conducting polymer coating (e.g.,Nafion® or other sulfonated polymer) which may be deposited directly onthe nanowires. For example, the nanowires may be functionalized with asulfonated hydrocarbon, fluorocarbon, or branched hydrocarbon chainusing known standard chemistries. Alternatively, instead of bindingionomer to the nanowires through a chemical binding moiety, thenanowires may be functionalized to make them proton conductive. Forexample, the nanowires may be functionalized with a surface coating suchas a perfluorinated sulfonated hydrocarbon using well-knownfunctionalization chemistries. In this way, the intimate relationshipbetween the nanowire catalyst support and the polymer shell ensures thatmost, if not all, of the metal catalyst particles are located at athree-phase contact point (e.g., such that the catalyst particles areaccessible to the fuel cell reactants, electrolyte and nanowire core forefficient electron and proton conduction). The controlled nanowiresurface chemistry can be used to control the wettability of the polymerin the composite nanowire structure and ensures that catalyst particlesare exposed and accessible for catalysis.

According to another embodiment of the present invention, ananostructured catalyst support for a membrane electrode assembly of afuel cell is disclosed which generally comprises an interconnected mator network of nanowires each having a metal catalyst deposited thereon.The catalyst metal may comprise any of the catalyst metals previouslydisclosed such as platinum. The catalyst metal may comprise acombination of metals such as platinum and ruthenium. In onerepresentative embodiment, the catalyst metal comprises nanoparticleshaving a diameter less than about 50 nm, e.g., less than about 10 nm,e.g., less than about 5 nm, e.g., between about 1 and 5 nm. In thisembodiment, each nanowire in the network of nanowires typically isphysically and/or electrically connected to at least one or more othernanowires in the nanowire network to form a highly interconnectednetwork of nanowires. In other embodiments, the nanowires may besubstantially aligned in a parallel array of nanowires between theanode/cathode bipolar plates and the proton exchange membrane, or thenanowires may be randomly oriented. The nanowires may each be coatedwith a first catalyst colloid coating and/or a second thin protonconducting polymer coating (e.g., Nafion®). The membrane electrodeassembly may be a component in a direct methanol fuel cell, a hydrogenfuel cell, or any other fuel cell known to those of ordinary skill inthe art.

A fuel cell is formed by providing a proton exchange membrane, an anodeelectrode, a cathode electrode, and first and second bipolar plates,wherein at least one of the anode and cathode electrode comprise aninterconnected network of the catalyst supported nanowires. Because ofthe superior connectivity of the nanowire network, the fuel cell may notrequire a gas diffusion layer between the proton exchange membrane andthe first or second bipolar plates as is the case with conventional fuelcells. In one embodiment, the nanowires may be synthesized directly onone or more of the bipolar plates of the fuel cell and/or on the protonexchange membrane. The nanowires may also be grown on a separate growthsubstrate, harvested therefrom, and then transferred (e.g., as a poroussheet of interconnected wires) and incorporated into the fuel cellstructure (e.g., deposited on one or more of the fuel cell componentssuch as one or more of the bipolar plates and/or the proton exchangemembrane). When grown in situ on the bipolar plate(s) and/or protonexchange membrane, the nanowires may be oriented substantiallyperpendicular or normal to a surface of the bipolar plate(s) or protonexchange membrane, or oriented randomly.

The nanowires in the nanowire network are preferentially physicallyand/or electrically connected to one or more other wires in the networkto form an open, highly branched, porous, intertwined structure, withlow overall diffusion resistance for reactants and waste diffusion, highstructural stability and high electrical connectivity for the electronsto ensure high catalytic efficiency, thus leading to high power densityand lower overall cost. The multiple electrical connectivity of thenanowires ensures that if one wire breaks or is damaged in the system,for example, that all points along the wire still connect to the anode(or cathode) electrode along different paths (e.g., via other nanowiresin the network). This provides substantially improved electricalconnectivity and stability as compared to previous packed particlecomposite structures. The catalyst is highly accessible to the fuelsource to produce electrons and protons, while the electrons can conductdirectly to the bipolar plate through the nanowire and the protons cantransport directly to the membrane through the polymer.

The nanowires in the network of nanowires may be cross-linked or fusedtogether using various cross-linking or sintering methods describedfurther herein at points where such nanowires contact or are proximal toothers of the nanowires to increase the connectivity and structuralstability of the nanowire network. In another embodiment, the samestrategy of cross-linking or sintering can be used to improve theelectrical or structural connectivity between the nanowires and catalystmaterial that is in contact or proximal with such nanowires.

The nanowire network defines a plurality of pores between the nanowiresin the network, wherein the plurality of pores preferentially have aneffective pore size of less than about 10 μm, for example, less thanabout 5 μm, e.g., less than about 1 μm, e.g., less than about 0.2 μm,e.g., less than 0.02 μm, e.g., between about 0.002 μm and 0.02 μm, e.g.,between about 0.005 and 0.01 μm. The overall porosity of the branchednanowire structure may be greater than about 30%, for example, betweenabout 30% and 95%, e.g., between about 40% and 60%. The nanowires aredispersed in a porous polymer matrix electrolyte material such asperfluorosulfonic acid/PTFE copolymer (e.g., Nafion®) which forms acontinuous network interpenetrated with the nanowires in the branchednanowire network to provide sufficient contact points for proton (e.g.,H+) transport.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a method for preparing afuel cell membrane electrode is disclosed which generally comprises (a)associating a catalyst metal selected from the group comprising one ormore of chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), manganese (Mn),technetium (Tc), rhenium (Re), iron (Fe), ruthenium (Ru), osmium (Os),cobalt (Co), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir), nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd),platinum (Pt), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn),aluminum (Al), and combinations thereof, with a plurality of inorganicnanowires to form a plurality of inorganic nanowires with associatedcatalyst metal, and (b) forming a membrane electrode comprising aplurality of inorganic nanowires with associated catalyst metal.

The plurality of inorganic nanowires may be derivatized with at least afirst functional group which binds the catalyst metal such as a nitricacid group, a carboxylic acid group, a hydroxyl group, an amine group, asulfonic acid group, and the like. The associating may also be done by avariety of methods selected from the group comprising chemical vapordeposition, electrochemical deposition, physical vapor deposition,solution impregnation and precipitation, colloid particle absorption anddeposition, atomic layer deposition, and combinations thereof. Forexample, the associating may be done by chemical deposition of acatalyst metal precursor such as chloroplatinic acid or byelectrodeposition of Pt from a precursor salt in solution. The catalystmetal precursor may be converted to a catalytically active metal bysubjecting the catalyst metal precursor to metal reduction, whereinmetal reduction is done by a method selected from the group comprisinghydrogen reduction, chemical reduction, electrochemical reduction and acombination thereof. The catalytically active metal may be in the formof metal nanoparticles on the surface of the nanowires. The forming maybe done on a proton exchange membrane or on one or more of the bipolarplates, for example, by a method selected from the group comprisingspray/brush painting, solution coating, casting, electrolyticdeposition, filtering a fluid suspension of the nanowires, andcombinations thereof. The nanowires may also be grown directly on one ormore of the fuel cell components such as one or more of the bipolarplates and/or proton exchange membrane. The method may further comprisemixing an ionomeric resin (e.g., perfluorosulfonic acid/PTFE copolymer,e.g., Nafion) with the plurality of inorganic nanowires with associatedcatalyst metal. The plurality of inorganic nanowires may be derivatizedwith at least a second functional group (e.g., a sulfonated hydrocarbongroup) which binds the ionomeric resin.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a method of making amembrane electrode assembly of a fuel cell is disclosed which generallycomprises: forming nanowires on a growth substrate; transferring thenanowires from the growth substrate into a fluid suspension; depositingone or more catalyst metals on the nanowires to form a nanowiresupported catalyst; filtering the fluid suspension of nanowires tocreate a porous sheet of interconnected nanowires; infiltrating thenetwork of nanowires with an ionomeric resin; and combining the sheet ofinterconnected nanowires with a proton exchange membrane to form amembrane electrode assembly (MEA). Hot pressing may be used to fuseelectrolyte in both the anode and cathode electrode with the protonexchange membrane to form a continuous electrolyte phase for efficientproton transport from the anode electrode to the cathode electrode. Thestep of depositing one or more catalyst metals may comprise, forexample, depositing a metal selected from the group comprising platinum,gold, ruthenium, and other metals, and combinations thereof. The methodmay further comprise forming a proton exchange membrane fuel cellutilizing the formed MEA by combining first and second bipolar platestogether to form the proton exchange membrane fuel cell.

For a further understanding of the nature and advantages of theinvention, reference should be made to the following description takenin conjunction with the accompanying figures. It is to be expresslyunderstood, however, that each of the figures is provided for thepurpose of illustration and description only and is not intended as adefinition of the limits of the embodiments of the present invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a conventional electrochemicalfuel cell showing exemplary reactions in the anode and the cathodeelectrodes;

FIG. 2A is an expanded view of the anode electrode portion of the fuelcell of FIG. 1 showing details of a conventional packed particlecomposite catalyst structure comprising Pt/Ru nanoparticles provided ona carbon particle support;

FIG. 2B is an expanded view of the packed particle composite catalyststructure of FIG. 2A showing an exemplary three-phase contact betweenthe gaseous reactants, electrolyte, and the electrocatalyst structure;

FIG. 3A is a schematic representation of a nanowire-basedelectrochemical fuel cell made according to the teachings of the presentinvention;

FIG. 3B is a schematic representation of a nanowire-basedelectrochemical fuel cell stack made according to the teachings of thepresent invention

FIG. 4A is an expanded view of the anode electrode portion of the fuelcell of FIG. 3 showing details of an embodiment of an interconnectednetwork of catalyst supported nanowires which span the junction betweenthe proton exchange membrane and anode electrode of the fuel cell ofFIG. 3;

FIG. 4B is an expanded view of an alternative embodiment for ananowire-based anode portion of a fuel cell showing details of aparallel array of catalyst supported nanowires which span the junctionbetween the proton exchange membrane and the anode electrode of the fuelcell of FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 is a SEM image of an interconnected network of nanowires used asthe catalyst support in an anode (and/or cathode) electrode of a fuelcell made according to the teachings of the present invention.

FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of a branched nanowire structurethat can be used in practicing the methods of the present invention;

FIG. 7 is an SEM image of a branched nanowire network including aplurality of branched nanowires having tiny nodules extending from theside surfaces of the nanowires;

FIG. 8 is an SEM image at high magnification of cross-linked or fusednanowires creating an interconnecting nanowire network as used incertain aspects of the present invention.

FIG. 9 is a SEM image showing Au catalyst particles deposited on anetwork of interconnected nanowires.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The membrane electrode assemblies and fuel cells of the presentinvention gain significant unique properties by incorporating nanowiresin their component structures. The term “nanowire” generally denotes anelongated structure having an aspect ratio (length:width) of greaterthan 10, preferably greater than 100 and in many cases 1000 or higher.These nanowires typically have a cross sectional dimension, e.g., adiameter that is less than 500 nm and preferably less than 100 nm and inmany cases, less than 50 nm, e.g., above 1 nm.

The composition of the nanowires employed in the invention may vary. Byway of example, nanowires may be comprised of organic polymers,ceramics, inorganic semiconductors such as carbides and nitrides, andoxides (such as TiO₂ or ZnO), carbon nanotubes, biologically derivedcompounds, e.g., fibrillar proteins, etc. or the like. For example, incertain embodiments, inorganic nanowires are employed, such assemiconductor nanowires. Semiconductor nanowires can be comprised of anumber of Group IV, Group III-V or Group II-VI semiconductors or theiroxides. In one embodiment, the nanowires may include metallicconducting, semiconducting, carbide, nitride, or oxide materials such asRuO₂, SiC, GaN, TiO₂, SnO₂, WC_(x), MoC_(x), ZrC, WN_(x), MoN_(x) etc.It is preferable that the nanowires be made from a material that isresistant to degradation in a weak acid so that the nanowires arecompatible with are compatible with the reactants of a variety ofdifferent fuel cells. Nanowires according to this invention canexpressly exclude carbon nanotubes, and, in certain embodiments, exclude“whiskers” or “nanowhiskers”, particularly whiskers having a diametergreater than 100 nm, or greater than about 200 nm.

Typically, the nanowires employed are produced by growing orsynthesizing these elongated structures on substrate surfaces. By way ofexample, published U.S. Patent Application No. US-2003-0089899-A1discloses methods of growing uniform populations of semiconductornanowires from gold colloids adhered to a solid substrate using vaporphase epitaxy. Greene et al. (“Low-temperature wafer scale production ofZnO nanowire arrays”, L. Greene, M. Law, J. Goldberger, F. Kim, J.Johnson, Y. Zhang, R. Saykally, P. Yang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42,3031-3034, 2003) discloses an alternate method of synthesizing nanowiresusing a solution based, lower temperature wire growth process. A varietyof other methods are used to synthesize other elongated nanomaterials,including the surfactant based synthetic methods disclosed in U.S. Pat.Nos. 5,505,928, 6,225,198 and 6,306,736, for producing shorternanomaterials, and the known methods for producing carbon nanotubes,see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,416,699 to Dai et al., as well as methods forgrowth of nanowires without the use of a growth substrate, see, e.g.,Morales and Lieber, Science, V. 279, p. 208 (Jan. 9, 1998). As notedherein, any or all of these different materials may be employed inproducing the nanowires for use in the invention. For some applications,a wide variety of group III-V, II-VI and group IV semiconductors may beutilized, depending upon the ultimate application of the substrate orarticle produced. In general, such semiconductor nanowires have beendescribed in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,301,199, incorporated herein above.In certain embodiments, the nanowires are selected from a groupconsisting of: Si, Ge, Sn, Se, Te, B, Diamond, P, B-C, B-P(BP6), B—Si,Si—C, Si—Ge, Si—Sn and Ge—Sn, SiC, BN/BP/BAs, AlN/AlP/AlAs/AlSb,GaN/GaP/GaAs/GaSb, InN/InP/InAs/InSb, BN/BP/BAs, AlN/AlP/AlAs/AlSb,GaN/GaP/GaAs/GaSb, InN/InP/InAs/InSb, ZnO/ZnS/ZnSe/ZnTe, CdS/CdSe/CdTe,HgS/HgSe/HgTe, BeS/BeSe/BeTe/MgS/MgSe, GeS, GeSe, GeTe, SnS, SnSe, SnTe,PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, CuF, CuCl, CuBr, CuI, AgF, AgCl, AgBr, AgI,BeSiN₂, CaCN₂, ZnGeP₂, CdSnAs₂, ZnSnSb₂, CuGeP₃, CuSi₂P₃, (Cu, Ag)(Al,Ga, In, Tl, Fe)(S, Se, Te)₂, Si₃N₄, Ge₃N₄, Al₂O₃, (Al, Ga, In)₂(S, Se,Te)₃, Al₂CO, and an appropriate combination of two ore more suchsemiconductors.

In the cases of semiconductor nanowires, the nanowires may optionallycomprise a dopant to increase the conductivity of the nanowire catalystsupport. The dopant may be selected from a group consisting of: a p-typedopant from Group III of the periodic table; an n-type dopant from GroupV of the periodic table; a p-type dopant selected from a groupconsisting of: B, Al and In; an n-type dopant selected from a groupconsisting of: P, As and Sb; a p-type dopant from Group II of theperiodic table; a p-type dopant selected from a group consisting of: Mg,Zn, Cd and Hg; a p-type dopant from Group IV of the periodic table; ap-type dopant selected from a group consisting of: C and Si; or ann-type is selected from a group consisting of: Si, Ge, Sn, S, Se and Te.

Additionally, such nanowires may be homogeneous in their composition,including single crystal structures, or they may be comprised ofheterostructures of different materials, e.g., longitudinalheterostructures that change composition over their length, or coaxialheterostructures that change composition over their cross section ordiameter. Such coaxial and longitudinal heterostructured nanowires aredescribed in detail in, e.g., Published International Patent ApplicationNo. WO 02/080280, which is incorporated herein by reference for allpurposes.

Furthermore, as disclosed in greater detail in co-pending, co-assignedprovisional Patent Application 60/738,100, filed Nov. 21, 2005, theentire contents of which are incorporated by reference herein, nanowirestructures with multiple shells can also be fabricated, such as, forexample, a conducting inner core wire (which may or may not be doped)(e.g., to impart the necessary conductivity for electron transport) andone or more outer-shell layers that provide a suitable surface forbinding catalyst (and/or polymer electrolyte). For example, in oneembodiment, a multi-layer or multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) can beformed in which the outermost shell layer is converted to siliconcarbide to provide a surface (SiC) to bind catalyst (and/or polymerelectrolyte) and a conductive carbon nanotube core to impart thenecessary conductivity. In alternative embodiments, the core may consistof heavily doped material such as doped silicon, and a shell of acarbide, nitride etc. material (e.g., SiC) may then be formed on thecore. The use of silicon as the core material leverages the extensiveexperience and infrastructure known for fabricating silicon nanowires. Acarbide shell, such as SiC, WC, MoC or mixed carbide (e.g. WSiC) may beformed around the core material using a controlled surface reaction.SiC, WC and MoC are known for their high conductivity and chemicalstability. In addition, these materials have been shown to havecatalytic properties similar to those of precious metals, such as Pt,for methanol oxidation, and therefore may provide further performanceenhancements in the nanowire bird's nest MEA. The precursor materialsfor the shell may be deposited on the core nanowire surface (e.g.,silicon) by atomic layer deposition (ALD) and then converted to thecarbide by high-temperature carbothermal reduction, for example.

Synthesis of core-shell nanowire (and other nanocrystal)heterostructures are described in, e.g., Berkeley U.S. Pat. No.6,996,147; co-assigned U.S. Pat. No. 7,339,184; Peng et al. (1997)“Epitaxial growth of highly luminescent CdSe/CdS core/shell nanocrystalswith photostability and electronic accessibility” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119,7019-7029; Dabbousi et al. (1997) “(CdSe)ZnS core-shell quantum dots:Synthesis and characterization of a size series of highly luminescentnanocrysallites” J. Phys. Chem. B 101, 9463-9475; Manna et al. (2002)“Epitaxial growth and photochemical annealing of graded CdS/ZnS shellson colloidal CdSe nanorods” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124, 7136-7145, the entirecontents of each of which are incorporated by reference herein. Similarapproaches can be applied to the growth of other core-shellnanostructures including nanowires.

In one embodiment of the invention, the nanowire portion of the anode(and/or cathode) electrode of the invention may be synthesized on agrowth substrate, and then transferred and incorporated into themembrane electrode assembly structure of the fuel cell. For example, incertain aspects, inorganic semiconductor or semiconductor oxidenanowires are grown on the surface of a growth substrate using acolloidal catalyst based VLS synthesis method described above. Inaccordance with this synthesis technique, the colloidal catalyst (e.g.,gold, platinum etc. particles) is deposited upon the desired surface ofthe substrate. The substrate including the colloidal catalyst is thensubjected to the synthesis process which generates nanowires attached tothe surface of the substrate. Other synthetic methods include the use ofthin catalyst films, e.g., 50 nm or less, deposited over the surface ofthe substrate. The heat of the VLS process then melts the film to formsmall droplets of catalyst that forms the nanowires. Typically, thislatter method may be employed where fiber diameter homogeneity is lesscritical to the ultimate application. Typically, catalysts comprisemetals, e.g., gold or platinum, and may be electroplated or evaporatedonto the surface of the substrate or deposited in any of a number ofother well known metal deposition techniques, e.g., sputtering etc. Inthe case of colloid deposition the colloids are typically deposited byfirst treating the surface of the substrate so that the colloids adhereto the surface. Such treatments include those that have been describedin detail previously, i.e., polylysine treatment, etc. The substratewith the treated surface is then immersed in a suspension of colloid.

Following growth of the nanowires, the nanowires are then harvested fromtheir synthesis location. The free standing nanowires are thenintroduced into or deposited upon the relevant surface of the fuel cellcomponent such as the bipolar plate(s) or proton exchange membrane, forexample, by a method selected from spray/brush painting, solutioncoating, casting, electrolytic deposition, filtering a fluid suspensionof the nanowires, and combinations thereof. For example, such depositionmay simply involve immersing the component of interest (e.g., one ormore of the bipolar plates or the proton exchange membrane) into asuspension of such nanowires, or may additionally involve pre-treatingall or portions of the component to functionalize the surface or surfaceportions for wire attachment. As described further below, the nanowiresmay also be introduced into a solution (e.g., methanol or water),filtered (e.g., vacuum filtered over a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)membrane) to give them a dense, intertwined mat or “bird's neststructure,” removed from the filter after drying and washing, and thenheat treated (e.g., annealed) at high temperatures. The resulting poroussheet of interconnected nanowires can then be incorporated into themembrane electrode assembly of the fuel cell. A variety of otherdeposition methods, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,067,328, andU.S. Pat. No. 6,962,823, the full disclosures of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. As explainedfurther below, the nanowires may also be grown directly on one or moreof the fuel cell components such as one or more of the bipolar platesand/or proton exchange membrane.

Typically, as shown in FIG. 1, a fuel cell 100 generally comprises ananode electrode 102, a cathode electrode 104, and a proton exchangemembrane (PEM) 106. The assembly of these three components is generallyreferred to as a membrane electrode assembly (MEA). As describedpreviously, if methanol is used as fuel, liquid methanol (CH₃OH) isoxidized in the presence of water at the anode 102 generating CO₂,hydrogen ions and the electrons that travel through the external circuit108 as the electric output of the fuel cell. The hydrogen ions travelthrough the electrolyte membrane 106 and react with oxygen from the airand the electrons from the external circuit 108 to form water at thecathode completing the circuit. Anode and cathode electrodes 102, 104each contact bipolar plates 110, 112, respectively. The bipolar plates110, 112 typically have channels and/or grooves in their surfaces thatdistribute fuel and oxidant to their respective catalyst electrodes,allow the waste, e.g., water and CO₂ to get out, and may also containconduits for heat transfer. Typically, bipolar plates are highlyelectrically conductive and can be made from graphite, metals,conductive polymers, and alloys and composites thereof. Materials suchas stainless steel, aluminum alloys, carbon and composites, with orwithout coatings, are good viable options for bipolar end plates in PEMfuel cells. Bipolar plates can also be formed from composite materialscomprising highly-conductive or semiconducting nanowires incorporated inthe composite structure (e.g., metal, conductive polymer etc.). Theshape and size of the components of the fuel cell can vary over a widerange depending on the particular design.

In another embodiment, nanowires may be deposited (e.g., grown) on oneor more of the bipolar plates to provide a high surface area electrodeplate with low flow resistance for methanol (or other fuel cell gas orliquid reactants) and waste products through it. A more completedescription of nanowire structures having enhanced surface areas, aswell as to the use of such nanowires and nanowire structures in varioushigh surface area applications, is provided in U.S. Ser. No. 10/792,402entitled “Nanofiber Surfaces for use in Enhanced Surface AreaApplications,” filed Mar. 2, 2004, the entire contents of which areincorporated by reference herein.

At present, the most commonly used electrode catalyst is Pt or Pt:Ruparticles 202 supported on carbon particles 204 (e.g., made from carbonblack) which are dispersed in an electrolyte film 206 as shown in theexpanded view of the anode 102 in FIG. 2A. One of the challenges in thecommercialization of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) is thehigh cost of the precious metals used as the catalyst (e.g., Pt or Ru).Decreasing the amount of Pt used in a PEMFC by increasing theutilization efficiency of Pt has been one of the major concerns duringthe past decade. To effectively utilize the Pt catalyst, the Pt shouldhave simultaneous contact to the reactant gases (or reactant solutionsor liquids), the electrolyte (e.g., proton conducting film), and thecarbon particles (e.g., electron-conducting element). As shown in FIG.2B, an effective electrode in a fuel cell requires a 4-phase-contact 208in the catalyst layer between the reactant gases/liquid, active metalparticles, carbon support 202, 204, and the electrolyte 206. A preferredcatalyst layer allows the facile transport of reactant gases (e.g.,methanol, MeOH:H₂O, hydrogen and/or oxygen), solutions, or liquids,facile transport of electrons to/from the external circuit and protonsto/from the proton exchange membrane.

The carbon particles conduct electrons and the perfluorosulfonateionomer (e.g., Nafion®) conducts protons. As noted previously, inconventional packed particle composite systems as shown in FIGS. 2A-B,there is a significant portion of Pt (or Pt:Ru) that is isolated fromthe external circuit and/or the PEM, resulting in a low Pt utilization.For example, current packed particle composites only utilize about 20 to30% of the catalyst particles. The inaccessibility to some catalystsites can be due, for example, to the fact that the necessary additionof the solubilized perfluorosulfonate ionomer (e.g., Nafion®) for protontransport tends to wash away or isolate carbon particles in the catalystlayer, leading to poor electron transport. Thus, most DMFCs whichutilize packed particle composite structures are highly inefficient.

Due to their unique structural, mechanical, and electrical properties,the inventors of the present application have discovered that nanowirescan be used to replace traditional carbon particles in PEMFCs as thecatalyst support and electron conducting medium to make MEAs. Becausethe generation of surface functional groups on nanowires, e.g.,nanowires such as SiC or GaN, is relatively straightforward, catalystnanoparticles such as Pt and/or Pt:Ru (as well as a proton conductingpolymer (e.g., Nafion)), can be facilely deposited on the nanowires,e.g., without agglomeration of the particles. Each catalyst particle isthen directly connected to the anode (and cathode) through the nanowirecore. The multiple electrical connectivity of the interconnectednanowires secures the electronic route from Pt to the electronconducting layer. The use of nanowires and the resulting guaranteedelectronic pathway eliminate the previously mentioned problem withconventional PEMFC strategies where the proton conducting medium (e.g.,Nafion) would isolate the carbon particles in the electrode layer.Eliminating the isolation of the carbon particles supporting theelectrode layer improves the utilization rate of Pt.

As shown now with reference to FIG. 3A, a nanowire-based fuel cell isshown which includes an anode bipolar electrode plate 302, a cathodebipolar electrode plate 304, a proton exchange membrane 306, an anodeelectrode 308, a cathode electrode 310, and an interconnecting networkof nanowires 312 positioned between both the anode electrode 308 andcathode electrode 310 on one side, and the proton exchange membrane 306on the other side of the fuel cell. Generally, a plurality of fuel cellsor MEAs as shown in FIG. 3A can be combined to form a fuel cell stack asshown, for example, in FIG. 3B having separate anode electrodes 308, 320and cathode electrodes 310, 322 separated by respective proton exchangemembranes 306 and 306′, respectively. The cells within the stacks areconnected in series by virtue of the bipolar plates 302, 304, 318, and324 such that the voltages of the individual fuel cells are additive.

As shown in FIGS. 3A, 4A and in the SEM image of FIG. 5, the nanowires316 in the nanowire networks 312 each are physically and/or electricallyconnected to one or more other wires in the network to form an open,highly branched, porous, intertwined structure, with low overalldiffusion resistance for reactants and waste diffusion, high structuralstability and high electrical connectivity for the electrons to ensurehigh catalytic efficiency, thus leading to high power density and loweroverall cost. It is important to note that even if two wires are not inactual direct physical contact with each other (or with a catalystparticle), it is possible that at some small distance apart, they maystill be able to transfer changes (e.g., be in electrical contact).Preferentially, each nanowire is physically and/or electricallyconnected to at least one or more other nanowire in the network. Themultiple connectivity of the nanowires ensures that if one wire breaksor is damaged in the system, for example, that all points along the wirestill connect to the anode (and cathode) electrode along different paths(e.g., via other nanowires in the network). This provides substantiallyimproved electrical connectivity and stability as compared to previouspacked particle composite structures. The wires may extend all the way(or only part way) between the anode (and cathode) bipolar plate and theproton exchange membrane. In the case where the wires do not extend allthe way between a bipolar plate and the membrane, the wires may extendfrom the bipolar plate toward the membrane, but not reach the membrane,and the polymer electrolyte can extend from the membrane toward thebipolar plate, but not reach the bipolar plate (but not the other wayaround) to ensure that electrons are efficiently transferred to theanode, and protons are transferred towards the cathode.

The nanowires in the nanowire network may optionally have a branchedstructure and include a plurality of nodules 600 which extend from sidesurfaces of the nanowire as shown in FIG. 6 and in the SEM image of FIG.7. The nodules 600 on the sides of the nanowire core can furtherincrease available surface area for catalysis without substantiallyimpacting the connectivity or porosity of the nanowire network.

The nanowires 316 are dispersed in a polymer electrolyte material 315(e.g., see FIG. 4A) which coats the surface of nanowires in the branchednanowire network to provide sufficient contact points for proton (e.g.,H+) transport. Polymer electrolytes can be made from a variety ofpolymers including, for example, polyethylene oxide, poly (ethylenesuccinate), poly (beta.-propiolactone), and sulfonated fluoropolymerssuch as Nafion® (commercially available from DuPont Chemicals,Wilmington). A suitable cation exchange membrane is described in U.S.Pat. No. 5,399,184, for example, incorporated herein by reference.Alternatively, the proton conductive membrane can be an expandedmembrane with a porous microstructure where an ion exchange materialimpregnates the membrane effectively filling the interior volume of themembrane. U.S. Pat. No. 5,635,041, incorporated herein by reference,describes such a membrane formed from expanded polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE). The expanded PTFE membrane has a microstructure of nodesinterconnected by fibrils. Similar structures are described in U.S. Pat.No. 4,849,311, incorporated herein by reference.

The porous structure of the interconnected nanowire network provides anopen (non-tortuous) diffusion path for fuel cell reactants to thecatalyst (e.g., catalyst particles 314) deposited on the nanowires 316as described further below. The void spaces between the interconnectednanowires form a highly porous structure. The effective pore size willgenerally depend upon the density of the nanowire population, as well asthe thickness of electrolyte layer, and to some extent, the width of thenanowires used. All of these parameters are readily varied to yield ananowire network having a desired effective porosity. For example,preferred nanowire networks have a porosity adequate to provide for aneven flow of reactants while maintaining adequate electricalconductivity and mechanical strength. Also, the porosity of the nanowirenetwork provides for water management within the cell. The branchednanowire network preferably is sufficiently porous to pass fuel gasesand water vapor through it without providing a site for watercondensation that would block the pores of the network and prevent vaportransport. The mean pore size generally ranges from about 0.002 micronsto about 10.0 microns, e.g., less than about 1 μm, e.g., less than about0.2 μm, e.g., less than about 0.02 μm, e.g., between about 0.002 μm and0.02 μm, e.g., between about 0.005 and 0.01 μm. The total porosity ofthe branched nanowire structure may be easily controlled between about30% to 95%, for example, e.g., between about 40% to 60%, while stillensuring electrical connectivity to the anode and cathode electrodes.

The nanowires 316 which form the interconnected nanowire networks 312may optionally be fused or cross-linked at the points where the variouswires contact each other, to create a more stable, robust andpotentially rigid membrane electrode assembly. The nanowires may alsoinclude surface chemical groups that may form chemical cross-links inorder to cross-link the underlying nanowires. For example, the nanowiresmay be cross-linked or fused together by depositing a small amount ofconducting or semiconducting material at their cross-points. Forexample, SiC nanowires (or, e.g., carbon nanotube nanowires having a SiCshell layer) can be cross-linked by depositing amorphous orpolycrystalline SiC at their cross-points. FIG. 8 is an SEM micrographshowing a plurality of silicon nanowires which have been fused togetherusing deposited polysilicon at their cross-points. One of skill in theart will appreciate that other metals, semimetals, semiconductors, andsemiconductor oxides could also be used to cross-link theseintersections.

In another aspect of the present invention shown with reference to FIG.4B, nanowires 316′ may be provided as a parallel array of aligned wireshaving electrolyte 315′ interspersed between the free spaces between thealigned wires. In this particular implementation of the presentinvention, the parallel array of nanowires is preferably synthesized insitu, e.g., on the surface of the bipolar electrode plate(s) 302 and/or304 (and/or the proton exchange membrane 306). It is to be understoodthat the randomly oriented, interconnected network 312 of wires 316shown in FIGS. 3A, 4A and 5 and described above can also be grown insitu directly on the bipolar plates 302, 304 (and/or proton exchangemembrane) using the techniques described herein. For example, inorganicsemiconductor or semiconductor oxide nanowires may be grown directly onthe surface of the electrode plate using a colloidal catalyst based VLSsynthesis method described above. In accordance with this synthesistechnique, the colloidal catalyst is deposited upon the desired surfaceof the bipolar plate. The bipolar plate including the colloidal catalystis then subjected to the synthesis process which generates nanowiresattached to the surface of the plate. Other synthetic methods includethe use of thin catalyst films, e.g., 50 nm or less, deposited over thesurface of the bipolar plate. The heat of the VLS process then melts thefilm to form small droplets of catalyst that forms the nanowires.Typically, this latter method may be employed where wire diameterhomogeneity is less critical to the ultimate application. Typically,catalysts comprise metals, e.g., gold of platinum, and may beelectroplated or evaporated onto the surface of the electrode plate ordeposited in any of a number of other well known metal depositiontechniques, e.g., sputtering etc. In the case of colloid deposition thecolloids are typically deposited by first treating the surface of theelectrode plate so that the colloids adhere to the surface. The platewith the treated surface is then immersed in a suspension of colloid.

In another aspect of the invention, the anode electrode 308 (and cathodeelectrode 310) may include a conductive grid or mesh made from any of avariety of solid or semisolid materials such as organic materials, e.g.,conductive polymers, carbon sheets, etc., inorganic materials, e.g.,semiconductors, metals such as gold, semimetals, as well as compositesof any or all of these, upon which the nanowires 316 may be attached,but through which apertures exist. Such meshes provide relativelyconsistent surfaces in a ready available commercial format with welldefined screen/pore and wire sizes. A wide variety of metal meshes arereadily commercially available in a variety of such screen/pore and wiresizes. Alternatively, metal substrates may be provided as perforatedplates, e.g., solid metal sheets through which apertures have beenfabricated. Fabricating apertures in meal plates may be accomplished byany of a number of means. For example relatively small apertures, e.g.,less than 100 μm in diameter, may be fabricated using lithographic andpreferably photolithographic techniques. Similarly, such apertures maybe fabricated using laser based techniques, e.g., ablation, laserdrilling, etc. For larger apertures, e.g., greater than 50-100 μm, moreconventional metal fabrication techniques may be employed, e.g.,stamping, drilling or the like. As formed, the metal grids or mesheswith the nanowires formed or deposited thereon by the methods disclosedherein may be deposited on the proton exchange membrane, bipolarplate(s), and or embedded within one or more of the electrode layers toprovide a porous network with a high surface area nanowire catalystsupport attached thereto for efficient catalysis. Other examples of avariety grids or meshes with nanowires deposited thereon which can beused in the present invention are fully disclosed in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/941,746, entitled “Porous Substrates, Articles,Systems and Compositions Comprising Nanofibers and Methods of Their Useand Production,” filed on Sep. 15, 2004, the entire contents of whichare incorporated by reference herein.

The nanowire network thus formed by any of the previously disclosedmethods is employed as the support for the subsequent metal (e.g.,platinum, ruthenium, gold, or other metal described below) catalyst,which may be coated or deposited, for example, on the nanowires.Appropriate catalysts for fuel cells generally depend on the reactantsselected. For example, the metallic catalyst may be selected from thegroup comprising one or more of platinum (Pt), ruthenium (Ru), iron(Fe), cobalt (Co), gold (Au), chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten(W), manganese (Mn), technetium (Tc), rhenium (Re), osmium (Os), rhodium(Rh), iridium (Ir), nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd), copper (Cu), silver(Ag), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn), aluminum (Al), and combinations and alloysthereof (such as bimetallic Pt:Ru nanoparticles). Suitable catalystmaterials for oxidation of hydrogen or methanol fuels specificallyinclude metals such as, for example, Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh and alloys thereof.

The catalyst may be deposited or otherwise associated with the nanowiresurface as a thin film (e.g., less than about 10 angstroms in thickness)(or a series of catalyst particles) by using a variety of catalystdeposition techniques including, for example, chemical vapor deposition,electrochemical deposition (e.g., electroplating or electroless chemicalplating), physical vapor deposition, solution impregnation andprecipitation, colloid particle absorption and deposition, atomic layerdeposition, and combinations thereof. The amount of the catalyst metalcoated by the methods described above is preferably in the range ofabout 10-85% by weight, more preferably, 20-40% by weight, based on thetotal amount of catalyst metal and nanowire material.

Alternatively, in one particular embodiment as shown with reference toFIGS. 3A and 4A-B, the catalyst may be deposited on the nanowire surfacein solution as a plurality of nanometer-sized metallic catalystparticles 314 (e.g., between about 1 and 50 nm in diameter, e.g., lessthan about 10 nm in diameter, e.g., between about 1 and 5 nm indiameter), e.g., by derivatizing the nanowire external surface with oneor more functional linker moieties (e.g., a chemically reactive group)such as one or more carboxylic acid groups, nitric acid groups, hydroxylgroups, amine groups, sulfonic acid groups, and the like. The catalystsparticles (or film) can be attached to the wires either uniformly ornon-uniformly. The catalyst particles can be spherical, semi-sphericalor non-spherical. The catalyst particles can form islands on the surfaceof the nanowires or can form a continuous coating on the surface of thenanowire such as in a core-shell arrangement, or stripes or rings alongthe length of the nanowire, etc. The catalyst particles may be attachedto the nanowire surface before or after the nanowire network isincorporated/deposited into the MEA of the fuel cell. In one embodiment,the catalyst particles may be selected from a population of catalystparticles having a uniform size distribution of less than about 50%, forexample, less than about 30%, for example, less than about 20%.

When a chemical linker molecule is used to bind the catalyst to thenanowire, the chemical linker can be selected to promote electricalconnection between the catalyst and the wire, or the chemical linker canbe subsequently removed to promote electrical connection. For example.heat, vacuum, chemical agents or a combination thereof, may optionallybe applied to the nanowires to cause the linker molecule to be removedto place the catalyst in direct physical contact with the wire to form asolid electrical connection between the catalyst particles and thenanowire. The structure can also be heated to anneal the interfacebetween the catalyst and the wire in order to improve the electricalcontact therebetween.

In addition to the conductive catalyst particles, fillers can be used toalter the physical properties of the nanowire composite structuresuseful in the invention. Appropriate fillers include, e.g. silica(SiO₂), powdered polytetrafluoroethylene and graphite fluoride (CF_(n)).The polymer films preferably can include up to about 20 percent byweight fillers, and more preferably from about 2 to about 10 percent byweight fillers. The fillers are generally in the form of particles.

Following catalyst deposition, a proton conducting polymer such asNafion may optionally be deposited on the nanowire surface betweencatalyst particle sites, for example, by functionalizing the surface ofthe nanowire with a second functional group (different from the catalystfunctional group, when used) that preferentially binds the electrolyteor which promotes consistent and/or controlled wetting. The polymer caneither be a continuous or discontinuous film on the surface of thenanowire. For example, the polymer electrolyte can be uniformly wettedon the surface of the wires, or can form point-contacts along the lengthof the wire. The nanowires may be functionalized with a sulfonatedhydrocarbon molecule, a fluorocarbon molecule, a short chain polymer ofboth types of molecules, or a branched hydrocarbon chain which may beattached to the nanowire surface via silane chemistry. Those of skill inthe art will be familiar with numerous functionalizations andfunctionalization techniques which are optionally used herein (e.g.,similar to those used in construction of separation columns, bio-assays,etc.). Alternatively, instead of binding ionomer to the nanowiresthrough a chemical binding moiety, the nanowires may be directlyfunctionalized to make them proton conductive. For example, thenanowires may be functionalized with a surface coating such as aperfluorinated sulfonated hydrocarbon using well-known functionalizationchemistries.

For example, details regarding relevant moiety and other chemistries, aswell as methods for construction/use of such, can be found, e.g., inHermanson Bioconjugate Techniques Academic Press (1996), Kirk-OthmerConcise Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (1999) Fourth Edition byGrayson et al. (ed.) John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York and inKirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Fourth Edition (1998 and2000) by Grayson et al. (ed.) Wiley Interscience (print edition)/JohnWiley & Sons, Inc. (e-format). Further relevant information can be foundin CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (2003) 83^(rd) edition by CRCPress. Details on conductive and other coatings, which can also beincorporated onto the nanowire surface by plasma methods and the likecan be found in H. S. Nalwa (ed.), Handbook of Organic ConductiveMolecules and Polymers, John Wiley & Sons 1997. See also, “ORGANICSPECIES THAT FACILITATE CHARGE TRANSFER TO/FROM NANOCRYSTALS,” U.S. Pat.No. 6,949,206. Details regarding organic chemistry, relevant for, e.g.,coupling of additional moieties to a functionalized surface can befound, e.g., in Greene (1981) Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis,John Wiley and Sons, New York, as well as in Schmidt (1996) OrganicChemistry Mosby, St Louis, Mo., and March's Advanced Organic ChemistryReactions, Mechanisms and Structure, Fifth Edition (2000) Smith andMarch, Wiley Interscience New York ISBN 0-471-58589-0, and U.S. Pat. No.7,985,475. Those of skill in the art will be familiar with many otherrelated references and techniques amenable for functionalization ofsurfaces herein.

The polymer electrolyte coating may be directly linked to the surface ofthe nanowires, e.g., through silane groups, or may be coupled via linkerbinding groups or other appropriate chemical reactive groups toparticipate in linkage chemistries (derivitization) with linking agentssuch as, e.g., substituted silanes, diacetylenes, acrylates,acrylamides, vinyl, styryls, silicon oxide, boron oxide, phosphorusoxide, N-(3-aminopropyl)-3-mercapto-benzamide,3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane, 3-mercaptopropyl-trimethoxysilane,3-maleimidopropyl-trimethoxysilane, 3-hydrazidopropyl-trimethoxysilane,trichloro-perfluoro octyl silane, hydroxysuccinimides, maleimides,haloacetyls, hydrazines, ethyldiethylamino propylcarbodiimide, and/orthe like. Other surface functional chemistries can be used such as thosethat would be known to one or ordinary skill in the art.

In addition, a solubilized perfluorosulfonate ionomer (e.g., Nafion) maybe placed into the spare space between nanowires. The composite nanowirestructure (e.g., as a porous sheet of interconnected nanowires, e.g.,made by the process described in the Example below), when not grown insitu on one of the bipolar plates and/or proton exchange membrane, maythen be placed between bipolar plates on either side of a protonexchange membrane, and the assembly hot pressed to form a completemembrane-electrode assembly fuel cell according to the presentinvention. The pressing temperature is determined such that the protonexchange membrane is softened in that temperature range, for example, to125 degrees Celsius for Nafion. The pressure level is about 200 kgf/cm².In order to efficiently distribute fuel/oxygen to the surface of theanode/cathode electrodes 308, 310, a gas diffusion layer is typicallyneeded in conventional fuel cells between the anode electrode andbipolar plate on one side, and the cathode electrode and bipolar plateon the other side of the fuel cell. Typically, a carbon fiber cloth isused as the gas diffusion layer. With the interconnecting nanowirecomposite membrane electrode catalyst support assembly of the presentinvention, this gas diffusion layer can be eliminated due to thesuperior structure of the nanowire-based electrodes.

Example

The following non-limiting example describes an exemplary process fordepositing gold (Au) nanoparticles on the surface of nanowires for usein a membrane electrode assembly according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

Approximately 10 mg Si nanowires were dispersed in ethanol by sonicationto form a nanowire suspension. An interconnected nanowire network wasprepared by vacuum filtration of the nanowire suspension over apolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane and vacuum drying, then 2 cc0.1% polylysine solution was added to the filter funnel to absorbpolylysine on the surface of the nanowires. After 5 minutes, all liquidin the funnel was vacuum removed and the nanowire network was separatedfrom the PVDF membrane. After being dried in an oven at 100 degreesCelsius for 15 minutes, the nanowire network was submerged in 10 cc of10 nm Au colloid solution and soaked for 20 minutes to absorb the Aunanoparticles on the surface of the nanowires. Finally, the nanowirenetwork was removed from the Au colloid solution, rinsed with isopropylalcohol (IPA), and dried at 100 degrees Celsius to obtain a nanowirenetwork coated with gold nanoparticles. FIG. 9 shows the SEM image ofthe Au catalyst nanoparticles deposited on the network of interconnectednanowires.

Although described in considerable detail above, it will be appreciatedthat various modifications may be made to the above-described invention,while still practicing the invention as it is delineated in the appendedclaims. All publications and patent documents cited herein are herebyincorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes tothe same extent as if each such document was individually incorporatedherein.

1. A composition comprising: a plurality of nanowires attached directlyto a support structure comprising graphite, carbon or a carboncomposition, the nanowires comprising crystalline silicon,polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, or a mixture thereof; and anelectrolyte.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the nanowires aredispersed within the electrolyte.
 3. The composition of claim 1, whereina portion of the electrolyte is attached to the nanowires.
 4. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein a portion of the electrolyte is directlylinked to the surface of the nanowires.
 5. The composition of claim 1,wherein a portion of the electrolyte forms a continuous or discontinuousfilm coating on the surface of the nanowires.
 6. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein a portion of the electrolyte is uniformly wetted on thesurface of the nanowires.
 7. The composition of claim 1, wherein thenanowires comprise an interconnected network of nanowires.
 8. Thecomposition of claim 7, wherein the nanowires comprise at least onesurface chemical group which forms chemical cross-links between theinterconnected nanowires.
 9. The composition of claim 1, wherein theelectrolyte comprises a polymer electrolyte comprising an ionomer, apolyethylene oxide, a poly(ethylene succinate), apoly(beta-propiolactone), or a sulfonated fluoropolymer.
 10. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the surfaces of the nanowires arefunctionalized.
 11. The composition of claim 10, wherein the nanowiresare functionalized with at least one functional group which promoteswetting of the electrolyte on the nanowires.
 12. The composition ofclaim 10, wherein the nanowires are functionalized with at least onefunctional group which binds the electrolyte to the nanowires.
 13. Thecomposition of claim 10, wherein the nanowires are functionalized withat least one molecule selected from the group consisting of: a shortchain polymer, a sulfonated hydrocarbon, a short chain sulfonatedhydrocarbon, a fluorocarbon, a short chain fluorocarbon, and a branchedhydrocarbon.
 14. The composition of claim 10, wherein the nanowires arefunctionalized with at least one functional group selected from thegroup consisting of: a nitric acid group, a carboxylic acid group, ahydroxyl group, an amine group, a sulfonic acid group, or a silanegroup.
 15. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition isporous, wherein the porous composition comprises pores disposed betweenthe nanowires of the plurality of nanowires.
 16. The composition ofclaim 15, wherein the electrolyte is disposed within the pores of theporous composition.
 17. (canceled)
 18. The composition of claim 1,wherein the nanowires comprise a core and one or more shell layersdisposed on the core.
 19. The composition of claim 1, further comprisingone or more metal catalyst particles attached to the nanowires, whereinthe metal catalyst particles comprise gold, copper, or mixtures oralloys thereof.
 20. The composition of claim 1, wherein the nanowiresare grown on the support structure.
 21. The composition of claim 1,wherein the composition is electrically conductive.
 22. An electrodecomprising the composition of claim
 1. 23. An anode comprising thecomposition of claim
 1. 24. An article, comprising: an anode; a cathode;an electrolyte, and wherein the anode comprises a substrate and aplurality of nanowires attached directly to the substrate, the substratecomprises graphite, carbon or a carbon composition, and the nanowirescomprise crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphoussilicon, or a mixture thereof.
 25. The article of claim 24, wherein thenanowires are grown on the substrate.
 26. The article of claim 24,wherein a portion of the electrolyte is directly linked to the surfaceof the nanowires.
 27. The article of claim 24, wherein a portion of theelectrolyte forms a continuous or discontinuous film coating on thesurface of the nanowires.
 28. The article of claim 24, wherein thenanowires are functionalized with at least one functional group whichbinds the electrolyte to the nanowires.
 29. The article of claim 24,wherein the substrate is porous.